research document
DART 339: 2nd skin & softwear
vincent leclerc
v@munaute.com

Emerging Frameworks for Tangible User Interfaces
by Brygg Ullmer and Hiroshi Ishiin
In “Human-Computer Interaction in the New Millenium,” John M. Carroll
ed.; Addison-Wesley, August 2001, pp. 579-601.

This article focuses on ways to develop tangible user interfaces to computers. It explores various examples and discusses their strength and weakness. It creates a distinction between the physical representations and the physical controls of a manipulable object. It defines and explains several important terms related to the coupling of digital information to physical artifacts.
There is an interesting section on approaches to physical representation. It gives examples of the use of 'recontextualized found objects' as a popular approach. It shows the weakness of an engeneering-driven approach that puts all the emphasis on functionnality rather than usability. It shows the strength of the approach of centering the design around the physical artifacts underlying pre-existing workplace practices. Finally, it discusses of an apprroach centered on the physical representation and materials used for the design of the interface.

Cognitive and Physical Affordances in Interaction Design
by H. Rex Hartson
Department of Computer Science, Virginia Tech, March 2001

Hartson defines and uses the terms cognitive affordance and physical affordance to refer to parallel and equally important usability concepts for interaction design in software systems. He generally defines affordance as something that helps or aids the user in doing a task. More specifically, according to Hartson, a physical affordance is a design feature that helps, aids, supports, or facilitates physically doing something, and a cognitive affordance is a design feature that helps, aids, supports, or facilitates thinking and/or knowing about something. He underlines the importance of connecting the physical and cognitive affordances in the design of an object.

Why We Need Things
Mihali Csikszentmihalyi

Csikszentmihalyi begins by saying that every object is the product of human intentionality, but that intentionality itself is conditioned by the existance of previous objects. He adds that most of of the things we make these days do not make life any better in material but instead serve to stabilize and order the mind.
He expalins 3 malor ways in which objects help objectify the self and provide a stable human life. According to him, objects serve as a demonstration the owner's power and the projection of his self. Objects reveal the continuity of the self through time. Finally, objects give concrete evidences of one's place in society reminding the owner of friends, relatives, etc.
He concludes by stressing the importance of being aware of the pulsions that drive or need of artifacts. The objects of power can be very dangerous and expensive so we should learn to discipline our consciousness so ojects can again be used primarily as instruments.